Farmlands are man-made ecosystems, not naturally occurring, but amongst the most important ecosystems for food security globally and are therefore our most vital ecosystems to sustain human livelihoods and drive economies. Farmlands supply us with food, fodder, fiber, arable fields and pastures which host a number of different species, ranging from birds, small mammals to insects and worms crucial for overall ecosystem function. Marked by a growing demand for production, these modified ecosystems have been prone to biodiversity loss and ecosystem function decline associated with: i) the use of pesticides fertilizers and other toxic agricultural chemicals that poison fresh water, marine ecosystems, air and soil and that deplete soil and deplete soil and water quality; ii) poor crop management such as intensive plowing and overgrazing, and iii) the adverse impacts of climate change such as floods and droughts. Restoring farmlands requires approaches such as agro-ecological agriculture, a farming approach that’s inspired by natural ecosystems combines local and scientific knowledge and focuses on the interactions between plants, animals, humans and the environment, [regenerative agriculture], which includes a change in cultivation methods such as limiting tillage, promoting crop rotation and moving to natural pesticides and fertilizers to restore the soil and to support continued agricultural production.

Loss of forest cover and forest degradation, including from urbanization, are one of the contributors to climate change. Growing demand for charcoal, firewood and housing are among the key drivers of deforestation worldwide. Cities play a critical role in reducing deforestation and forest degradation, restoring forests, and sustainably managing forests. This includes returning trees to former forest land and rehabilitating degraded urban forests through: i) planting native tree species; ii) conserving wild plants and animals; and iii) improving soil and water quality as part of a landscape approach to protecting and managing the forest ecosystem.

Grasslands, shrublands and savannahs cover approximately half of the world’s terrestrial surface, yet investment into their conservation and restoration has been relatively limited. Grasslands, shrublands and savannahs are often arid or semi-arid in nature, and are hotspots for endemic and often threatened species. Iconic fauna such as lions, rhinoceros, anteaters and wallabies, along with thousands of bird and insect species, make these ecosystems a conservation priority and a major motivator for ecotourism investment.

Freshwater ecosystems supply food, water and energy to people living in cities. These ecosystems also provide habitats for numerous species, and play an important role in urban climate resilience. These critical ecosystems include i) mangroves shielding our coasts against tsunamis and erosion, ii) inland lakes and rivers providing habitats to fish species and enhancing water security, and iii) wetlands that purify water and serve as sponges to moderate water flow, and also store vast amounts of carbon. Protecting and restoring freshwater ecosystems includes integrating effective urban waste and catchment management (see our Catchment Management guide) to improve water quality, planting trees and other suitable vegetation to improve soil stabilization and lower the rate of erosion, and influencing human behaviour to protect and conserve their surrounding water resources. 

Mountainous regions underpin the livelihoods and well-being of more than 1.1 billion people globally, communities living upstream, along with billions living downstream that benefit indirectly. These ecosystems are particularly sensitive to degradation – from both human pressures and climate change. Given their steep slopes, the clearing of forest for farming, settlements or infrastructure can cause substantial soil erosion on mountains as well as habitat loss, which make these ecosystems more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change such as floods. Erosion and pollution harm the quality of water flowing downstream and climate change threatens the quantity and timing of water supply to farms, cities, industry and power stations. Fast-rising temperatures are forcing mountainous animal and plant species, ecosystems and the people that depend on them to adapt or migrate.

Oceans provide us with food, regulate our climate, and generate most of the oxygen we breathe. They underpin key sectors of the economy such as tourism and fisheries and their biodiversity range from whales and plankton to penguins, in habitats from sun-lit reefs to polar oceans. However, degradation of marine and coastal ecosystems continues globally. The majority of pollutants that make their way into the ocean come from human activities, not only along the coastlines but originating far inland. Currently, plastic pollution is the most prevalent threat to oceans globally, with at least 14 million tons of plastic ending up in the ocean every year. Therefore, reducing marine plastic pollution is an important part of restoring degraded ecosystems.  

While peatlands cover only 3% of the world’s land, it stores nearly 30% of global soil carbon. According to the Global Peatlands Assessment, peatlands account for ~500 million ha globally, across all continents, providing vital services such as support to water supply, prevention of floods and droughts, and providing people with food and fuel. Peatlands are also habitats for rare plants and animals that can only survive in these unique watery environments. Despite this, peatland degradation persists globally, with ~12% of the world’s peatlands drained and degraded, ultimately contributing to 4% of annual global human-induced emissions. The Global Peatlands Assessment provides the most recent and most comprehensive assessment of the world’s peatlands to date, along with sustainable actions that can be taken to protect, restore and sustainably manage them.